Environmental Erosion Research Journal

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The river’s Geomorphology and its evaluation explore explanation of erosion, the longitudinal profile of the river bed and different forms of the rivers. Alvand River as the main river of the Alvand basin is located in Kermanshah Province W, Iran. The aim of this study is to investigate changes in longitudinal and longitudinal profiles of the river bed using mathematical functions and their relationship with the land and its base. Using the Applied-Developed research method, analytical-statistical and field study method is used in this paper.The results show that, the evaluation of longitudinal profiles and morphological forms of the river bed is in relation with various factors such as erosion, tectonics, lithology and geomorphological elements such faults. The rivers located in the upper part, are fitted with a linear function due to this part of the basin is affected by activities tectonic. The middle and low parts except Alvand 2 which are affected by tectonic activities, other parts due to tectonic activity on weak lithologycal structure, have been fitted with an exponential function and contains bed and bank erosions.

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The river’s Geomorphology and its evaluation explore explanation of erosion, the longitudinal profile of the river bed and different forms of the rivers. Alvand River as the main river of the Alvand basin is located in Kermanshah Province W, Iran. The aim of this study is to investigate changes in longitudinal and longitudinal profiles of the river bed using mathematical functions and their relationship with the land and its base. Using the Applied-Developed research method, analytical-statistical and field study method is used in this paper.The results show that, the evaluation of longitudinal profiles and morphological forms of the river bed is in relation with various factors such as erosion, tectonics, lithology and geomorphological elements such faults. The rivers located in the upper part, are fitted with a linear function due to this part of the basin is affected by activities tectonic. The middle and low parts except Alvand 2 which are affected by tectonic activities, other parts due to tectonic activity on weak lithologycal structure, have been fitted with an exponential function and contains bed and bank erosions.

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Extended abstract
1- Introduction
Active tectonics is defined as neotectonic movements that are likely to occur in the future and threaten human societies (Burbank et al, 2001). Active tectonic studies are important topics in the earth sciences and their results are widely used to assess natural hazards and land use development and management programs in densely populated areas (Pedrera et al, 2009).  Hisami et al (2006) estimates shortening of the northwestern Zagros to a maximum of 5 mm per year, and Mirzaei (1997) estimates that more than 50% of the recorded earthquakes in Iran occur in the Zagros Zone and is the most seismic-prone area in Iran. Shabani (2004) has identified the Kandand fault as an earthquake source in Kermanshah province. The west of the Kerend Basin is in the folded Zagros Zone and the Kereend seismic fault is located in this basin. Therefore, it seems that tectonics of the region is active and considering the location of the city of West Kereend and many villages and human settlements in the basin, evaluation and estimation of its active tectonics are necessary. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and estimate the active tectonics of the Kereend West basin using drainage network analysis.
2- Methodology
The data of this research include (30 meters) ASTER DEM, geological map ¬ 1: 100000, topographic maps 1: 50000. Then, during field visits, the geomorphological features of the West Kerend basin were examined. Then, using the DEM of the area, the area of West Kerend basin and its drainage network were extracted and the waterways were ranked according to the Straler method. Then the geometric features, drainage network and topography of the West Kereend basin were calculated. Then, linear morphometric, shape and uneven morphometric parameters (Table 1) and geomorphic indices for this basin were calculated. The values of morphometric and geomorphic parameters are classified according to Table (2) and have scores of 1, 2 and 3, which indicate low, medium and high tectonic activity, respectively. The classification of the amount of technical activity in the West Kereend Basin is based on the CR index. This index is the sum of the scores of morphometric and geomorphic parameters used (Table 3) and its high values indicate the most active tectonic conditions (Shukla et al, 2014).
3- Findings
The results of two linear morphometric parameters indicate the location of the West Kereend basin at the end of the youth stage of the erosion cycle and the anomaly of the drainage network and the low impact of these indicators on lithological conditions. The results of the shape parameter indicate the high roughness and elongation of the shape of the West Kereend basin due to tectonic uplift of the anticlines of the studied basin. Based on the values obtained from three morphometric parameters, the roughness of the West Kereend basin has moderate tectonic activity. The results of geomorphic indices also indicate the tectonic activity of the West Kereend basin. The value of index (Af) in the West Kereend basin indicates active tectonics and increase on the left side of the West Kereend River, which is due to the uplift of the Kereend Anticline due to the shortening of the Zagros and the Kereend drift movement on its southern edge. The index (T) of West Kereend basin also indicates the topographic asymmetry of this basin and indicates active tectonic intervention and the elevation of the left bank of the river. Based on the results of CR index, West Kereend basin is in the class with high tectonic activity.
4- Result
The results of linear morphometric parameters indicate the location of the western Kereend basin at the end of the youth stage of the erosion cycle. The values of the shape parameter indicate the elongation of the basin and the elevation of the anticlines of the studied basin and the results of the morphometric parameters of the roughness also indicate the relative roughness of the West Kereend basin. The results of geomorphic indices also indicate the asymmetry of the basin and the existence of active formation on the left side of the river in the West Kereend basin. The results of CR parameter show that West Kereend basin is in the class with high tectonic activity. In general, the active tectonic status of the West Kereend basin includes active tectonics and the general uplift of the basin due to the shortening of the Zagros zone due to the Arabian plate pressure and the asymmetry of the basin and the uplift of the left bank of the river due to the westbound drift activity. This is consistent with the results of studies by Blank et al. (2003), Bachmanov (2003), and Hesami et al. (2006), who believe in the uplift of the northwestern Zagros. The tectonic activity of the Kereend West basin as well as the entire northwest Zagros range can cause active tectonic hazards such as earthquakes.

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Extended abstract
1- Introduction
The purpose of this essay is to investigate the morphometry of catchment areas in the Zagros morphotectonic unit using the Horton principle of erosion status. Erosion is a natural phenomenon that has always been associated with the Earth since the formation of it, but over recent centuries it has taken an upward trend because of population growth, resources constraints, industry development and increasing human interference in natural ecosystems (Ghodsipour, 1395: 143). By eroding their bed for adjusting the bed profile, rivers increase their sedimentary load and its amount depends on the type of bed and the factors influencing the river speed (Majnoonian, 1378: 4). Production has always been expected to increase with the use of advanced agricultural methods, but unfortunately, this increase has been accompanied by a decrease in soil fertility due to erosion (Hudson, 1394: 469). The term “river morphometry” can be used to measure the geometric characteristics of a river. In fact, morphometry is a quantitative analysis of the geomorphic characteristics of the landforms of a region (Bayati Khatibi, 1388: 25). Morphometric analysis is one of the effective methods for prioritizing sub-basins, which can indicate the status of the basin drainage network (Mousavi et al., 1396: 250).
2- Methodology
For this purpose, the whole geomorphic unit of Zagros was first divided into eleven water basins. These water basins were then extracted in 271 sub-basins. The next step was to rank the channels using the Horton and Strahler methods. The Horton principle and the other researchers’ terms were used to investigate the erosion status of sub-basins. Morphometric characteristics divided into three categories: formal, linear, and topographic parameters. In order to obtain the erosion classes, after calculating the parameters, all the factors for calculating erosion were averaged and classified. According to calculations conducted, the coefficients were obtained that had to be classified and analyzed. The difference between the maximum quantity and the minimum quantity of the coefficients was obtained and the result was divided by five, and then it was summed with the minimum quantity of calculations and the obtained quantity, which was the smallest number, was coded as 1 and similarly, the next number was summed with the quantity obtained from (Max - Min / 5) and the code 2 was assigned to the answer obtained and all the numbers smaller than that. In the same way, up to 5 classes were classified.
3- Results
The result shows an inverse relationship between occurrence of erosion and average quantity of total morphometric parameters. In other words, a lower average quantity of the total morphometric parameters indicates a more prepared condition for erosion; therefore the situation will be more critical and threatening.
The classification shows that many factors have affected erosion, including; the area and length of the channel, permeability and inequality.
In the Zagros morphotectonic unit, the length of the dry stream is also directly related to erosion. Morphometric analysis shows the drainage network of the dendritic basin. A change in slope and topography might be a change in the flow-length ratio. Lithology, tectonics and the climate of that region have had a great impact on the erodibility of this unit. Also, the increase in the number of channels and their length in the drainage basin indicate an increase in erosion. Basins with very high ranking are likely to have high altitude, high slope and deep valley topography, which indicates a strong drainage structure and thus they are more exposed to intense motion of the brae.
4- Discussion & Conclusions
Separate geological facies and lack of cement between particles and soil granules are major factors leading to erosion, sedimentation and debris flows. Moreover, lack of cement between particles and granules in channels can cause lateral erosion, increased amount of sediment and reduced stability of soil aggregate and formations.
 
The erosion status of the Zagros morphotectonic unit was estimated based on the results and was classified into 5 groups. According to Figure (3), it can be stated that in this unit the erosion status is predominant, high and medium, which has been affected by lithological, tectonic and climatic factors. According to figure (4), very low erosion prevails over the coastal sub-basins of the Zagros unit, while low erosion is more centralized in some springhead and coastal sub-basins. Figure (7) indicates that many sub-basins with moderate erosion have a larger area than sub-basins with high erosion. As the sub-basins area shrinks, high erosion has prevailed. Very high erosion is scattered throughout the unit. In the sub-basins of this erosion status, the same logic prevails as in the sub-basins with high erosion and with the shrinking of the sub-basins, erosion has become too high.

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1- Introduction
Interaction between tectonic and surface processes to create and dissect topography is the main area of emphasis in tectonic geomorphology (Burbank & Anderson, 2001: 2). Growing usage of GIS and DEMs have improved techniques of landscape analysis in Tectonic geomorphology. One of the widely used approaches in tectonic geomorphology to recognize general elements on landscape related to tectonic is analyzing topographic patterns by swath profiles (Perez Pena et al, 2017: 136). To avoid arbitrariness of selecting a single profile line, earth scientists use topographic swath profiles (Telbisz et all, 2013: 485). Examining elevation values associated with corresponding coordinates is one of the most common variables to study by swath profiles (Telbisz et all, 2013: 487، Yousefi Bavil & Yousefi Bavil, 2019: 281). In these projected profiles, contours and equally spaced profile lines intersections are determined inside a band (Grohman, 2004: 1059). In the present study, in order to evaluate the long-term equilibrium of northwestern Zagros landscapes in response to internal and external forces that uplift or tear down its topography, Perez-Pena et al (2017) method of extracting swath profiles has been used. We have also used their new transverse hypsometry index for analyzing hypsometry along the swath. Since different parts of the Zagros are subjected to different tectonic force vectors, thereby, the rate of tectonic processes and the resultant forms are not the same. On the other hand, surface processes make these landscapes’ evolution more complex. To simplify the topographic pattern of these complex processes, 10 swath profiles parallel and perpendicular to the Lorestan arc and its adjacent crushed zone trend have been plotted and interpreted.
2- Methodology
Topographic swath profiles are created by projecting topographic profiles with equal space inside a strip or swath (Perez-Pena et all, 2017; Fielding et al., 1994). This method is applied for sampling and analyzing a value and its changes for representing three-dimensional datasets on a two-dimensional diagram that is more systematic than ordinary profiles with arbitrary cross-profiles (Yousefi Bavil & Yousefi Bavil , 2019; Telbisz, et all. 2013; Hergarten, et al, 2014).In the swath profile, statistical parameters of elevation values (maximum, minimum, mean, quartile 1 and 3 as well as local relief) can be calculated and plotted against the distance (Telbisz et all, 2013: 485). Different methods of constructing swath profiles have been explained by Telbisz et al, 2013; Hergarten et al, 2014, Perez Pena et al, 2017, Yousefi Bavil and Yousefi Bavil, 2019. In this article, Perez Pena et al (2017) approach has been used to extract swath profiles which allows constructing swath profiles for curved features. This kind of swath profile is made up of calculating parallel lines to the baseline and sampling their length with defined step sizes. In addition, considering the deviations of mean elevation to the maximum or minimum elevations, by re-scaling hypsometric integral values in a defined range (between 0.2 and 0.8), an enhanced transverse hypsometry index (or THi^*) can provide better comparison of hypsometry along swath profile. All these commands can be implemented in GIS software by swath profiler add-in programmed by Perez-Pena et al (2017). Here digital elevation model is the elevation source and a line or curved feature is the baseline. The step size and total width of profiles also can be changed in the input box of the add-in. In this study, swath profiles with 40 meters step size inside a strip with a width of 20 km (10 meters from each side of baseline or main profile line) for five transects perpendicular to Zagros trend (NE-SW) named P1 to P5 and five transects parallel to its trend (NW-SE) named H1 to H5 (fig. 8) along with their main fault have been extracted (fig. 9 & 10). The NW-SE baselines follow the main Zagros faults (Berberian, 1995) in area (Zagros main reverse fault and Zagros recent fault, high Zagros fault, Zagros mountain front fault, and Zagros foredeep fault). Five NW-SE curve lines cross morphotectonic units of Zagros (Berberian, 1995) which are adjacent (High  Zagros thrust belt, Zagros simply folded belt, and Zagros foredeep contains Dezful and Kirkuk embayments).
3- Results
In plotted swath profiles, mean elevation represents general topographic trend of landscape within swath; minimum and maximum elevation show landscape variation perpendicular to the swath, local relief, and quartile describe topographic variation along the swath. Upward deflection of mean elevation to maximum elevation reveals a transite state of landscape adjustment to high uplift rates. Stable state landscapes including basins and plateaus with low incision rates have smoother local relief curve where the swath curves are merged (Perez-Pena et al, 2017: 137). Based on the exported diagrams, higher values of enhanced transverse hypsometry index (Thi^*) occurs when the third quartile and in some points mean elevation is closer to the maximum. When swath curves meet the flat areas of Zagros foredeep (Dezful embayment) merging together, Thi^* values keep a constant value of about 0.5.
4- Discussion & Conclusions
Results show that in swath profiles with the direction perpendicular to the Zagros trend, comparing areas with different uplift and incision is better possible. In both perpendicular and parallel swath profiles, high values of the enhanced transverse hypsometry integral (THi*) introduce a young relief that is being incised by a drainage network with steep valleys. These high values of THi* can be observed in the location of anticlines of Zagros simply folded belt unit and as well as in intersections of main faults with swath profiles in most swath diagrams. High local relief and wider variation of curves in most swath profiles, except the end parts of the southwest of the region, can characterize a dissected landscape exposed to high incision or uplift.
 

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1- Introduction
Tectonic and human activities, such as land-use changes and urbanization, have directly and indirectly impacted the geomorphic characteristics of landforms. These activities have influenced erosion and sedimentation rates, evaporation and transpiration processes, runoff patterns, river dynamics, and the frequency of mass movements. This study examines the effects of human and neotectonic activities on geomorphological dynamics of the Shour River and Eshtehard Plain. The research aims to (1) Assess geomorphological changes in landforms to identify potential negative consequences and regional instabilities and (2) to identify key factors driving these changes, evaluate their impacts, and determine the most significant contributors to environmental vulnerability. Temporal and spatial changes in landforms were analyzed using aerial photographs, maps, and satellite images, supplemented with field data and observations. The findings were derived by cross-referencing satellite data, fieldwork results, and previous studies. Information sources included documentary references, scholarly articles, library materials, satellite imagery, and geological maps. Field observations were conducted across different seasons to assess the region's response to tectonic and human influences.
2- Results
Human activities are a key driver of geomorphological changes in the Shour River system. Civil construction, road building along waterways and alluvial fans, and the establishment of factories and mines in the erodible formations of the Eshtehard Plain have increased erosion, sedimentation, and river channel displacement. Land uses, such as agricultural fields, abandoned lands, salt marshes, pastures, and urban areas, were identified through satellite imagery, land-use maps, and field observations. The region’s geology and neotectonic activities also significantly influence geomorphological changes. Rivers are sensitive to tectonic displacements, which can alter their longitudinal profiles and geomorphic characteristics. The longitudinal profile of the Shour River is generally concave but shows convexities and fractures in some sections, often coinciding with intersections of the river and fault lines. These features suggest variations in the riverbed’s erodibility or elevation due to fault displacements. Agricultural land in the region has declined due to water scarcity, while urban and industrial zones have expanded. Population growth, increased groundwater extraction, reduced rainfall, higher temperatures, and rising evaporation rates have intensified drought conditions. Many farmers have abandoned their land, leading to reduced agricultural activity. Geological maps and tectonic analyses, combined with comparisons of historical Google Earth imagery, reveal that changes in river slopes and tributary deviations are likely linked to the Eshtehard fault line and ongoing neotectonic activity.
3- Discussion & Conclusions
This study analyzed the impact of human and neotectonic activities on the Shour River basin and the Eshtehard Plain. Human activities, such as road construction, urban and rural development, industrial expansion, and waterway diversion, have disrupted erosion and sedimentation processes. Mining activities have caused significant land-use changes, contributing to water and soil pollution, environmental degradation, and sedimentation in floodplains.
Tectonic activities have reshaped landforms by altering river courses intersecting with fault lines, displacing alluvial fans, and redirecting river flows. Evidence from base-level changes, sequences of alluvial fans, and terraces in the region confirms the influence of neotectonic processes. The downstream sequence of alluvial fans near the Halghedar Heights suggests tectonic activity and shifts in base levels. Channel displacement over time is also linked to fault-induced changes and base-level variations.
In summary, human activities have had the greatest short-term impact on the Shour River and Eshtehard Plain, while neotectonic processes have played a dominant role in shaping the region’s long-term geomorphology.