Environmental Erosion Research Journal

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The goal of this study is determination of erosion rate and sediment production and exploring sensitive areas of erosion in Zemkan basin, located in the West of Kermanshah Province.To achieve these objectives, the erosion potential method (EPM) was used.Geographical information system also was used to reduce the errors and increase the relative accuracy in the analysis of the model. Required data in this study were obtained through fieldwork, existing maps, data from meteorological and hydrometric stations and library resources. The nessesary data layers were digitized and georeferenced and finally database were created. Using standard tables provided in the EPM model, accordant values for the basin extracted and incorporated into the layers according to the relations given in EPM model, the erosion intensity map, erosion and sediment ratio were calculated for the basin. Results revealed that the ratesof especial erosion (WSP) and especial sediment are (GSP), 2742.02 and 1005.55 m3/km2/yrespectively. The intensity of erodibleity of the basinwas also classified as very intensive (V).However the intensity of the erosion in the basin suggests that, different policies of erosion control in the basinare necessary.

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Different factors affect the runoff and sediment production during storm conditions. Among different soil properties, clay content is one of the most important bonding agents for aggregation and infiltration. Rock fragments also affect hydrological and erosional processes, but these relationships in various soil clay contents or surface rock fragments may be positive or negative, thus examination of these effects is of importance in erosion process. Besides, runoff and sediment modeling is essential, because of the difficulties associated with measurements, for any sediment and flood remediation efforts. In this study, in order to have control on levels of variables for each treatment, a set of rainfall simulation system at experimental plots was utilized. In the next step, factorial design including 6 groups of clay treatments (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 percent) and 6 groups of impermeable surface treatments (0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 percent), each in 3 replicates, (totally 108 experimental plots) was used. To study temporal variations of runoff and sediment, 30-minute rainfall simulations were run with sampling in 2.5-min intervals. Trend analysis showed that in all mentioned treatments, runoff volume increased significantly (p<0.01) but sediment production trend decreased when soil clay content increase. Also, in runoff and sediment production, clay content had the main role when compared to surface rock fragments. Finally, Inverse and S-curve models had best fits on runoff trends. However, sediment production trend and regression models between runoff and sediment mainly both had cubic patterns.

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Extended abstract
 
 
1- Introduction
    Climate change is one of the problems human is facing today, and most of the scientific societies know that it is rooted in the distribution of greenhouse gases. Distribution of greenhouse gases with large volumes and in large spans has been affecting the energy budget and consequently has caused earth rapid temperature increase during the last decades. On the other hand, such a growth of world means temperature has changed the amount, type and spatiotemporal pattern of precipitation and it is forecasted that it will affect the hydrological cycle in the future decades, severely. Different Changes of moisture and thermal components as inputs for the organized systems of nature means that (under present condition which can be called rapid change era) we should wait for the consequences of irreversible human manipulations on the nature. The damages caused by wind erosion on the environment, health and economy are vast. These damages occur at the removal place and also at the places where the particles of soil deposit. Wind erosion entails the loss of soil fertility, the damage to infrastructure and railway lines, the limitation of the life of plant and animal species, the occurrence of severe dust storms and air quality fall, increase in respiratory problems and illnesses, and desertification. Several factors contribute to the erosion of the soil by the wind. For example, to determine the severity of wind erosion in the IRIFR model, 9 different factors are used. The Raizal model, which is a software program, determines the amount of soil erosion in terms of the physical condition of the land, including the soil, climate, and region. A point among all the wind erosion models is that the climate factors are the most effective factors in creating wind erosion. Wind erosion is one of the most important factors in soil erosion in the arid and semi-arid regions. Iran, due to its location in the arid and semi-arid belt of the Earth, is one of the areas that exposed to wind erosion. Most of the researches on wind erosion in Iran have been in the central and desert regions of Iran, whereas other parts of Iran also affected by this phenomenon. One aspect of the climate change includes the changes in soil erosion susceptibility from the wind. If the climate becomes dry, the wind erosion will increase. This study investigated the effects of global warming on the soil erosion caused by the wind in the West Central Plains and the East central Zagros mountains of Iran.
 
2- Methodology
   Wind erosion is a process where soil particles detached from the surface and moved by the wind. Several factors contribute to the creation of wind erodibility including lithology, topography, climate, land use and vegetation. Climate conditions among these factors is the most effective one due to the fact that the climate conditions influence the other factors such as land use, vegetation, and even the surface layers of lithology and topography in the long term. This article focused on climatic aspect of influencing factors on the soil wind erodibility.
   The study area was limited to Khoramabad (48.17 E, 33.26 N), Kashan (51.27 E, 33.59 N), Yazd (54.17 E, 31.54 N) and Yasuj (51.41 E, 3050 N) contexts. Louis Peltier, using two climate indices, i.e. rainfall and temperature, determines the susceptibility of the soil erosion by the wind. For the zoning of the areas susceptible to the wind erosion, Louis Peltier's model used. In order to choose a suitable model for predicting the temperature and precipitation values under the effects of global warming‌, MAGICC SCENGEN model used. This composite model used for evaluating the climate change due to the greenhouse gases.
 
 
3-Results
   The results showed that in the regions of the West Central plains of Iran in the current period which had low rainfall and relatively high temperature, the wind plays an important role in the soil erosion. According to Peltier's classification, wind erosion is severe in these areas. While passing through these areas to the eastern slopes of the central Zagros Mountains, the rate of wind erosion reduced. In these areas, the wind erosion is moderate. In the highlands of the Zagros Mountains, undergoing low temperature and relatively high rainfall, the wind has very little role in the erosion of the soil. The results also showed that due to global warming, the areas with severe wind erosion would expand.
 
4- Discussion and Conclusion
   Because Iran is located in the arid and semi-arid belt of the Earth, it can regarded as one of the areas susceptible to wind erosion. This study indicated that the climate factors, the most important of which are temperature and rainfall, have created the conditions for wind erosion in Iran. Wind erosion is so severe in the large parts of the study area. Only in the highlands of the Zagros Mountains, due to higher rainfalls and lower temperatures and thus maintaining the soil moisture, the wind cannot cause soil erosion. This study showed that global warming could play a major role in the development of the regions where the wind erosion is severe. Hence, in land use and infrastructure planning, the type of the wind erosion in the current period as well as in the future periods must take into account.
 

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Extended abstract
1- Introduction
Fluvial and aeolian processes are important factors in changing the surface of morphology in the Earth. When rivers and sand dunes meet, the transportation of sediment  between them can lead to one of the systems or both  of them change. With their connection between river sediment and wind systems there would be lots of reactions, but very little has been studied. According to the previous studies in Iran, river and wind systems have been studied separately. Whereas ground-level processes rarely interact with each other, there is so many important proofs that river and wind processes simultaneously are interacting. The interaction between these two processes is important for mantaining the purposes of an intergrated management of fluvial and aeolian systems, considering the wide vastness of Iran’s effect by wind and river erosion. This research is the first inventory of interactions between rivers and sand dunes with the aim of systematically analyzing of the interactions between fluvial and aeolian geomorphology and determining the dominance of Fluvial and aeolian systems in different environments.
2- Methodology
The method of this research is descriptive-analytical. This study is a visual search of  the interactions between rivers and sand dunes using satellite imagery hosted by Google Earth (GE) as well as Landsat 8 (USGS) images in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. Using these images, surface and landforms from fluvial and aeolian processes can be identified. Because of this reason, this study focuses on the interactions between sand dunes and rivers, where the characteristics of both are easily reconized. To intensify this research, library resources including books and articles have also been used. The search of methodology started at the margins of dryland areas visually identified within Google Earth. Than Identifiable river courses were (bieng  traced up and down the streams to find places where aeolian dunes interact with river courses. Interactions were identified at a regional scale. In this research, 304 sites, where rivers and sand dunes met, are identified and analyzed  by using imagery satellites for the first time in the country. The classification scheme of Liu and Coulthard (2015) has been used to classify the types of interactions between the sand dunes and rivers. At each site a key word   has been used to classify the types of interactions between the sand dunes and rivers. At each site key attributes such as river direction, sand transport direction, fluvial aeolian meeting angle, sand dune type, and river channel pattern were identified and their relationships between each factor was investigated. Based on the data, six different types of interactions between rivers and sand dunes were classified, that reflected changes between the fluvial and aeolian systems.
3- Results
According to the data from 304 sites in arid and semi-arid regions of the country, although longitudinal sand dunes are most occurring among all the sand dunes, a similar distribution of channel patterns can be observed for each level . Braided channel patterns have the highest frequency and straight channel patterns and others have the lowest frequency. In all of different channel patterns, the most frequent interaction is fully fluvial dominant and the  lessfrequent  one which is the type of mostly aeolian dominant and balanced. In braided channel patterns, the frequency of interactions from types of mostly aeolian dominant and balanced more than other patterns. In balanced conditions, rivers and dunes connect more in the angles of 45 to 90 degrees
4- Discussion & Conclusions
Four variables changes has been analyzed to seek possible relationships between fluvial and aeolian systems, including dune type, channel pattern, meeting angle and the interaction. The results showed that there is a significant relationship between the type of meeting angle and the type of sand dune, the meeting angle and the type of interaction, the channel pattern and type of interaction. These relationships have shown that active river channel patterns are most common where aeolian or fluvial systems are dominated, but the balance between them is not sustainable. There was also no relationship between sand dunes and channel patterns. The results of this study are in line with Liu and Coulthard (2015) studies that show significant relationships between fluvial and aeolian processes. The results of a survey of 304 distributed sites in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran showed an extensive interaction between rivers and sand dunes. According to the results, it can be said that in many sites, wind and river processes have a significant impact on each other and then on the landforms and geomorphology of the site. Nevertheless, more research is required to investigate how each fluvial and aeolian processes affect each other, as well as geomorphologic changes caused by them in Iran.

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1- Introduction
Physical properties are one of the most important soil properties that affect other aspects of soil such as erosion and water infiltration into the soil. One way to improve soil properties is to use modifiers. Biochar is one of the modifiers based on organic matter that can play an important role in soil properties and the results of research studies have shown the effect of biochar on the physical and chemical properties of soil. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of Shrimp and eggplant waste biochar suspension on some soil structure stability indices.
2- Methodology
 In this study, the effect of Shrimp and eggplant waste biochar suspension on soil structure stability indices was investigated and for this purpose sandy soil was selected. The studied soil was sampled from agricultural lands around Bandar Abbas intact areas with polyethylene columns with a height of 25 and a diameter of 20 cm. The experiment was performed in a completely randomized design with 9 treatments and 3 replications. The studied treatments included biochar of eggplant and shrimp wastes suspension separately with concentrations of 0, 4, and 8 g/l which were added to the soil inside the columns according to the weight percentage. They were incubated for 100 days at moisture ranging from field capacity (FC) to 50 % FC in greenhouse conditions. Then some soil physical properties including mean weight diameter of wet sieving (MWD_wet), dry sieving (MWD_dry) aggregates, percentage of aggregate destruction (PAD), and saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) were measured. The analysis of variance for a completely randomized design was performed in order to evaluate the significance of shrimp and eggplant biochar rates on soil physical parameters by using the SPSS16 statistical software. The estimated Means were compared using Duncan’s test with a P<0.05 level of significance.
3- Results
The results showed that the addition of shrimp and eggplant waste biochar suspension had a significant (p<0.01) effect on the measured parameters. In addition, the addition of both shrimp and eggplant waste biochar suspension to the soil increased MWD_wet and MWD_dry and decreased PAD, BD, and Ks, significantly. The maximum values of MWD_wet and MWD_dry were obtained by application of 8 and 4 g/l eggplant waste biochar suspension, respectively, which showed a significant difference (p<0.05) with the control treatment. The minimum percentage of aggregate destruction (PAD) was obtained by application of 8 g/l eggplant biochar suspension (21.7%), and the minimum of Ks was obtained by application of 4 g/l Shrimp waste biochar suspension (3.7 cm/h).
4- Discussion & Conclusions
 The results showed that the addition of different levels of shrimp and eggplant biochar due to the presence of organic nuclei in it can act like cement, causing the mineral particles to stick to the soil and leading to the formation of stable aggregates. Organic biochar carbon in the soil with chemical bonds and the formation of bridges between soil particles as a bonding agent increased the stable bond between soil particles, increased aggregation and the formation of stable aggregates and also increased MWD_wet and MWD_dry. Therefore, by improving the soil properties by biochar, the percentage of aggregate destruction (PAD) can be reduced. Furthermore, the application of different levels of Shrimp and eggplant waste biochar suspension has reduced bulk density (BD) of sandy soil. It seems that the increase in bio-waste of shrimp and eggplant waste biochar, as an organic compound, has affected the amount and distribution of micropores and soil porosity with a sandy texture, therefore, reducing the bulk density of the soil. The application of different concentration levels of shrimp and eggplant waste biochar has reduced the hydraulic conductivity in the studied sandy soil. It seems that the addition of both types of eggplant and shrimp biochar by increasing more stable aggregates in dry and wet conditions and bulk density changes the pore distribution, reduces the number of macropores and increases the micropores in the sandy textures. It can also significantly reduce the saturated hydraulic conductivity compared to the control treatment that lacked any modifiers.
According to the results of this research, the application of shrimp and eggplant waste biochar improved the physical properties of soil and reduced the percentage of soil degradation, hydraulic conductivity, and bulk density.

 

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1- Introduction
Instead of focusing on how development affects ecosystems, the ecosystem service approach focuses on how ecosystems affect development. By quantifying the water production service in a basin, it is possible to determine the amount of water production in different uses of the land and use this information to apply better management decisions in line with the potential of the region. The provision of this service depends on the characteristics of the watershed such as topography, vegetation and land use, climate and other parameters governing the provision of services. Various tools and models have been developed to study these services to help authorities make appropriate decisions for ecosystem management. These tools are divided into two general categories, traditional hydrological tools and ecosystem service tools, which are service-specific tools. InVEST tools focus on the final services of the ecosystem and map the services and in this research has been used to serve the water production of the study area.
2- Methodology
The study area of the coastal strip of Bandar Abbas from Bustano (west) to Bandar Abbas airport (east) is 69 km along the coastline. Therefore, to make the research comprehensive, the smallest hydrology unit in the area or catchment area where this area of Bandar Abbas city is located was selected. In this research, the water production model from the model set, InVEST 3.8.9 was used with the aim of plotting the possible future of the study area. This process consists of two general steps, first processing and preparation of satellite images, then modeling water production with InVEST model. Landsat satellite images (5 and 8) were used to prepare mapping images of the study area and after performing radiometric, atmospheric and ground reference corrections (by Ye and Grimm method, 2013) And the classification of the images was achieved with the maximum likelihood similarity algorithm (by Shrestha et al method. 2018).
3- Results
The watershed area that has been selected as the study area includes three sub-basins with a total area of 272,806 hectares. In this section, the land use of the study area was divided into 5 categories: water, urban, agricultural, arid and grassland. And modeling was done first in the year 2000 as the base year of comparison for subsequent years and then in 2020. In the year 2000, the area of human-made floor is 10721 hectares, water is 671 hectares, agriculture is 11285 hectares, arid lands are 150123 hectares and grassland cover is 100003 hectares. The percentages of each land use are 3.9, 0.24, 4.1, 55 and 36.6, respectively. These figures for 2020 are: human-made land uses with 6.2% and water, agriculture, arid and grassland land uses with 0.62, 8.7, 50 and 34%, respectively. It can be seen that human-made, water and agricultural uses have increased and pasture and wasteland uses have decreased. Examination of the water production map shows that it increased from a maximum of 81 mm in 2000 to 70 mm in 2020. Also, by comparing the maps, the amount of water production in the study area had decreased from 7.143.433 cubic meters to 5.463.450 cubic meters in 2020, which indicates a decrease of 23%. The results are also visible at the sub-basin level. In 2020, the reduction of water production in sub-basins 12, 11 and 13 demonstrated a decrease of 24, 21 and 27%, respectively.
4- Discussion & Conclusions
Comparing the land use cover of the base conditions in 2000 and 2020 revealed that man-made, water and agricultural land uses have increased and grassland and arid land uses have decreased. Comparing the rainfall maps indicated that the rainfall situation in the study area is increasing from south to north and the lowest rainfall in the southwestern part and the highest rainfall in the northern and eastern parts of the study area and for both periods of rainfall status are almost the similar.The InVEST water production model estimated the ecosystem water production volume in the whole basin to be more than 7 million cubic meters in 2000 and more than 5 million cubic meters in 2020, which represents a decrease of 23%. The map of water production by sub-basin shows a decrease in all sub-basins in 2020 compared to 2000, and among sub-basins, sub-basin has the highest and one lowest production, and this is the same in both periods.
According to the obtained results, the study area has severe water stress based on water production and basin area. In adiiton, by considering the importance of water and taking into account other factors such as climate change, rainfall reduction, change in rainfall type, global warming, increase in evaporation, and population increase, we need to decide and invest in supply, transmission, and increase of water efficiency. This is an important endeavor considering the factors changing the type of rainfall, which means the intensity and aggressive nature of local rainfall in the study area and its role to start the separation and transfer of soil particles by runoff. The results of the present study also shows lower overall rainfall in 2020 compared to the year 2000, which affects the inherent sensitivity of the soil and makes it more susceptible to erosion, which, in turn, doubles the importance of addressing this issue.
Due to the fact that water production in the whole basin has severe water stress, and the overall decrease in rainfall in 2020 compared to 2000, this situation will have a greater impact on the inherent sensitivity of the soil and predisposes it to erosion.This is an important issue considering the intensity factor and the aggressive nature of local rainfall in the study area and its role in initiating the separation and transfer of soil particles by runoff which exposes the study area to more severe water erosion. Also, considering the spatial pattern of precipitation changes in the northern parts of the watershed, this area will be more erodible, and due to the impact of wind erosion on water erosion, the results of investigations for this section are useful to help study wind erosion and increase fine dust.
 

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1- Introduction
Sinkholes are processes of land deformation that create conical shapes with different dimensions in karst and loess areas, and if they occur in high frequency in one area, they form a specific topography. Sinkholes in loesses occur for various reasons and the main cause is the phenomenon of collapsibility in loesses.  Sinkholes create spatial landscapes after formation and make subsequent changes in the earth's surface. In Iran, a large amount of valuable soil is lost to erosion every year for various reasons. The amount of soil loss by this phenomenon is estimated at about 2 billion tons, which is estimated as 7.6% of the world's total erosion, and a significant amount of soil enters the rivers as sediment every year. One type of erosions is tunnel erosion, which has been less studied compared to surface erosion due to its complex formation and measurement difficulties. Tunnel erosion is one of the water erosions whose occurrence causes significant changes in the earth's landscape and environmental degradation. This type of erosion is often caused by dissolution. Cheshmeh Lee village is located 45 km northeast of Kalaleh and 27 km southwest of Maraveh Tappeh in Golestan province.
2- Methodology
Geoelectric studies in the Cheshmeh Lee village had been considered with the aim of studying sinkholes, hidden created channels and their path, soil horizons and geological units, possible fractures, surface and groundwater as well as bedrock structures. A total of four profiles named as AB, CD, EF, and GH were designed in this village, then the data were collected using dipole-dipole array with an electrode distance of 10 meters for different separation steps. The data obtained from the Geoelectric studies were processed after the field data were collected.
3- Results
AB profile
  The range of variation of the resistivity value across the obtained section is not large. Changes in the amount of resistivity indicate small changes in the type of geological strata that are often associated with area loess. However, in some parts, the amount of resistivity has slightly increased or decreased. The increase in resistivity is probably related to the compaction (density) of loess units, and the decrease in resistivity can be due to the presence of moisture, salt (due to its observation in downstream springs) or an increase in clay.

CD profile
  There is a similar trend in terms of change in the amount of resistivity in the AB profile. The amount of resistivity affected by loess units has changed in the area. However, in some parts of the cross-section, an increase or decrease in the specific resistance can be observed. The amount of resistivity has decreased in medium depths, especially in the middle of the section. Given the amount of resistance obtained, probably indicates the beginning of the floor stone in this section.
EF profile
 The highest amount of resistivity is distributed at higher depths. Increased resistivity can indicate the beginning of the depth of the floor stone in this area.
GH profile
  As in the previous profiles, in this profile, the main changes of special resistance are related to the loess units of the region, and sometimes in some parts, an increase or decrease in the amount of special resistance can be observed. Considering the residential location of the village along with the outcrops of sinkholes and erosion tunnels, 4 points were selected and introduced for drilling holes in order to study the geotechnical features of the area. This part of the study includes field operations such as drilling boreholes, and conducting field experiments, and laboratory experiments. Also, this part of the research was conducted with the objectives of determining the soil type and thickness of soil layers, determining the stratification and geotechnical conditions of the soil and examining the physical and mechanical characteristics of the soil.

4- Discussion & Conclusions
   The results of inverse modeling and preparation of all-electrical resistance maps provided appropriate information about the general state of the region. In general, the values of resistivity for the studied profiles showed the trend of changes in the amount of resistivity, which are mainly affected by the loess units of the region. However, the trend of change has increased or decreased in some parts. Increasing the amount of resistivity is mainly connected with stone units. The results of the analyses conducted show that the Geoelectric technique has a good capability due to the sensitivity of the amount of electrical resistance to the structural changes in the lower levels, and if this technique is used, it leads to a reduction in costs in other executive studies. Also, the speed of harvesting, analyzing and drawing conclusions from this technique is high compared to other executive methods.

 

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1- Introduction
Today, even the simplest human activities, such as walking, can have destructive consequences. Human movement on the earth may be done for economic, tourism, military purposes, etc. However, these movements lead to the trampling of the land and have consequences such as changes in the abundance and richness of vegetation, increase in runoff and soil density, and changes in erosion. In addition, the surface of the landforms is disturbed and with a sharp decrease in the threshold of shear speed, their vulnerability to wind erosion increases dramatically. Determining the sensitivity of landforms requires accurate tools, time and a lot of money, while the use of photography in monitoring the amount of changes in landforms can save time and money. The research that has been done so far in relation to trampling is generally based on two approaches. The first approach is the experimental method, that is, small undisturbed parts are selected in the study area and trampled according to the requirements of the experiment. The second method involves making long-term observations of the tracks that have been trodden. Chale Masileh is a part of the desert areas of the country, which is trampled by humans for various reasons. Economic activities such as harvesting potassium, magnesium and other materials from the bed of the salt lake, tourist areas such as Maranjab in the south of the region and military activities and holding large military maneuvers are among them. However, there is still no detailed information about the areas sensitive to trampling. Therefore, the current research tries to investigate the sensitivity of different desert landforms to trampling using a low-cost and fast method because in order to use and manage desert areas, it is necessary to understand the sensitivity of landforms.
2- Methodology
The studied area mainly includes Mesila pit. The geographic coordinates of the salt lake as an index point in this hole are 30°34° north latitude and 50°51° east longitude. In this research, various materials, data and tools have been used in different stages of the research. The geomorphological map of the study area, and field data were collected in field operations using camera, tripod, GPS and plot. ArcMap, SNAP software were used to prepare the data, and Python 3.10 programming environment was used to run the model and draw graphs and outputs. 13 landforms were selected in different positions of the region. In the next step, an undisturbed area in the landform was selected and photographed, then trampled with 25 passes and a second photograph was taken. After recording the images by entering fourteen features for each pixel, the data was prepared to participate/to be applied in the model implementation. In the implementation of the model, 75% of the pixels were used as training data and the remaining 25% as test data. The ratio of changed pixels to unchanged pixels was considered as the change rate.
3- Results
Evaluation of model efficiency using model relative performance characteristic curves (ROC) and area under the curve (AUC) shows that the values of 0.99 to 0.88 indicate the very good efficiency of the model in all samples. The RMSE value for the samples shows that in all the samples the mean square error value is less than 0.5, which confirms the good accuracy of the model in predicting the changed pixels. In addition, the average percentage of accuracy for samples using -k10 shows that the accuracy of the model in each sample is more than 80%. The importance of the image texture features in predicting the changed values in the photographed samples shows that in most samples the feature of the local standard deviation of the image of dissimilarity was the most important factor
4- Discussion & Conclusions
Determining the sensitivity of the landforms of desert areas to human trampling is important for the management of these areas. To achieve this purpose, it is very useful to use low-cost, fast and accurate methods such as taking pictures and using machine learning algorithms. This study shows that the XGboost model and the photography method can measure the amount of landform changes with an accuracy of over 90%. These changes are determined according to the texture of the images and do not measure changes in height or soil density. However, it determines the number of changed pixels even when it is barely visible to the eye. On the other hand, the results of this method are the result of the influence of all effective variables such as slope, humidity, roughness, etc. While changes in altitude or density can be affected by one of the mentioned factors. The changes in different landforms based on the results of the model show that the least change is in the plowed land, which consists of very hard mud and salt. The surface of this landform is naturally very messy and uneven. The changes in the comparison of the two photos before and after trampling in this sample are hardly visible. The changed areas mostly correspond to the microslopes and small peaks that have been subjected to the most pressure in each pass. The amount of changes in the landform of sandy surfaces with a small amount of vegetation is 85%, which shows the most/highest changes among the samples. The key feature of this landform is the separation of land surface materials and vegetation.
 

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1- Introduction
Crude oil and its derivatives represent one of the most significant sources of fuel on a global scale. With continuous industrial advancements, the production and consumption of these resources are increasing daily worldwide. However, this escalating demand has led to substantial soil contamination, adversely influencing environmental quality and human health. The pollution attributed to petroleum hydrocarbons poses a grave threat to the well-being of all living organisms across the planet. Environmental degradation resulting from petroleum spills profoundly impacts soil ecosystems, increases hydrophobicity, diminishes water accessibility, and directly contaminates flora and microorganisms. Excessive contamination from point sources impairs soil functionality, disrupts plant growth and microbial activity, and results in enduring ecological repercussions.
Mangrove forests are critical ecosystems that harbor vast biodiversity, both aquatic and terrestrial, and are particularly vulnerable to pollution. Oil contaminants jeopardize the integrity of these ecosystems and instigate adverse alterations. Factors contributing to oil pollution along coastlines include oil tanker operations and fuel smuggling. Therefore, it is imperative to examine the impacts of oil substances on coastal soil. This study explores the ramifications of kerosene and diesel hydrocarbon pollutants on the physical characteristics of sediments from mangrove forest coastlines.
2- Methodology
To investigate the effects of petroleum pollutants on soil, samples were taken from the surface layer (0-10 cm) of coastal sediments in the mangrove forest of the Kulgan area in Bandar Abbas. Samples were placed in plastic containers with a capacity of 3 kg, air-dried, and homogenized. Following a completely randomized design, samples were contaminated with kerosene, diesel, and oil compounds at three concentrations (0%, 4%, and 8% w/v) in triplicate. The samples were kept in a soil and water laboratory at a temperature of 18-25°C for 10 days under field capacity to 50% field capacity in dry and wet conditions to stabilize the soil conditions. After a ten-day rest period, samples were slowly taken from the respective treatments with minimal disturbance, air-dried, and several physical parameters of the soil were investigated. Statistical analysis and comparison of data averages were conducted using a one-way analysis of variance and Duncan's test with SPSS16 software at the 5% significance level.

3- Results
The findings from the one-way variance analysis revealed statistically significant effects of petroleum contaminants on specific physical parameters at the 1% level across all experimental treatments. Metrics such as MWDwet, MWDdry, turbidity height, clay and silt dispersion percentages in water, the percentage of aggregate destruction (PAD), and bulk density were significantly affected compared to the control treatment. The comparison of averages indicated that both concentrations of kerosene significantly increased the MWDdry value compared to the control and diesel treatments (4% and 8%). Simultaneously, the bulk density (BD) and turbidity height of the soil solution decreased with increases in MWDdry, AS, and PAD. Diesel treatments exhibited positive trends in MWDwet, MWDdry, and AS properties, while parameters such as clay and silt dispersion percentages, BD, turbidity height, and PAD showed negative trends compared to the control. The minimum recorded PAD was 4% for diesel, while the maximum PAD was 4% for kerosene.
4- Discussion & Conclusions
      This research demonstrates that both kerosene and diesel oil pollutants significantly affect the physical properties of mangrove forest soils, with notable differences in their impacts. Both pollutants penetrated the soil, causing particle separation, increased pore spaces, and increased total soil volume due to their hydrophobic properties, leading to decreased BD. Kerosene and diesel, having low water solubility, formed complexes with soil mineral particles, helping stabilize soil structure and reducing the dispersion of clay and silt in wet conditions. Both types of oil pollution caused a decrease in turbidity height; however, diesel treatments resulted in more suspended soil particles compared to kerosene. This is due to diesel's higher viscosity and slower flow rate, which delayed the settling of suspended particles and increased turbidity. Kerosene showed a higher percentage of soil degradation than diesel because its shorter hydrocarbon chains break down faster, resulting in more destructive effects on the soil. In conclusion, kerosene has more detrimental effects on the physical characteristics of mangrove forest sediments than diesel. The observed changes in BD, AS, soil solution turbidity, and PAD underline the impact of kerosene and diesel. These findings enhance our understanding of oil pollution's effects on coastal soils and suggest appropriate management strategies to mitigate these impacts. This study highlights the need for further research into the long-term effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on soil health and ecosystem stability. Future research should investigate the biochemical pathways through which these hydrocarbons interact with soil constituents and the potential for remediation strategies to restore affected soils. Understanding the precise mechanisms of pollutant-soil interactions will be critical for developing effective mitigation and rehabilitation techniques to protect mangrove forests and similar ecosystems from ongoing and future petroleum contamination.
4- Discussion & Conclusions
      This research demonstrates that both kerosene and diesel oil pollutants significantly affect the physical properties of mangrove forest soils, with notable differences in their impacts. Both pollutants penetrated the soil, causing particle separation, increased pore spaces, and increased total soil volume due to their hydrophobic properties, leading to decreased BD. Kerosene and diesel, having low water solubility, formed complexes with soil mineral particles, helping stabilize soil structure and reducing the dispersion of clay and silt in wet conditions. Both types of oil pollution caused a decrease in turbidity height; however, diesel treatments resulted in more suspended soil particles compared to kerosene. This is due to diesel's higher viscosity and slower flow rate, which delayed the settling of suspended particles and increased turbidity. Kerosene showed a higher percentage of soil degradation than diesel because its shorter hydrocarbon chains break down faster, resulting in more destructive effects on the soil.