In Press (Winter)
Back to the articles list |
Back to browse issues page
Morteza Saberi * 
, Mohammad Reza Dahmardeh Ghaleno , Rasool Khatibi , Alireza Shahriari , Mehdi Sarparast
, Mohammad Reza Dahmardeh Ghaleno , Rasool Khatibi , Alireza Shahriari , Mehdi Sarparast
Rangeland and Watershed Management Department, Faculty of Water and Soil, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran , mortezasaberi@uoz.ac.ir
Abstract: (958 Views)
1- Introduction
In recent years, soil erosion, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, has been considered one of the most critical environmental threats, which reduces the productive capacity of ecosystems and disrupts their natural balance by causing extensive changes in the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil systems. Soil erosion can lead to significant soil degradation in natural ecosystems. Wind and water erosion are the two main types of erosion that interact significantly with each other in arid and semi-arid areas. The amount of soil lost through combined wind and water erosion is greater than the amount lost due to each of the erosions alone. This study aimed to assess the impacts of combined wind and water erosion on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils in the Bampour region of Sistan and Baluchestan Province, southeastern Iran.
2- Methodology
Soil sampling in this study was done in a completely randomized design. First, erosion and sedimentation maps available in the region were used to classify soil erosion intensities, including: no erosion, low erosion, moderate erosion, and severe erosion. Then, in each erosion region, four homogeneous areas with common physiographic conditions were selected. In each of them, five soil samples (one sample in the center and four samples in the form of a plus sign around it) were collected. Soil sampling was carried out from a depth of 0 to 30 cm. For each erosion site, samples collected from homogeneous areas were mixed to prepare a composite sample. Immediately after collection, the soil samples were divided into two parts. Part of the samples intended for measuring biological properties were transported to the laboratory in sealed containers to maintain the initial humidity conditions and in the vicinity of dry ice. These samples were not sieved and were stored in the refrigerator until the experiments were performed. The other part of the samples was used to measure physical and chemical properties after drying in the open air and passing through a 2 mm sieve. The data were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS software. Duncan's test with a 95% confidence level was used to compare the means. Also, the correlation between the studied parameters was analyzed in the R software environment.
3- Results
The results indicated that erosion intensity significantly influences all physical, chemical, and biological soil properties. The most pronounced changes in physical properties were observed in bulk density and porosity, highlighting their high sensitivity to erosion processes. Analysis of variance confirmed that erosion intensity has a significant impact on key chemical parameters, including organic carbon, total nitrogen, available potassium and phosphorus, soil pH, electrical conductivity, and moisture content. Organic carbon concentration was highest in non-eroded soils (55.5 g/kg) and decreased significantly as erosion severity increased. Similarly, soil moisture content declined sharply from 19.9% in non-eroded soils to 7.3% under severe erosion conditions. Strong negative correlations were found between erosion intensity and organic carbon, total nitrogen, available potassium, electrical conductivity, and moisture, indicating that reductions in these soil fertility indicators are associated with increased erosion severity. Moreover, microbial biomass and enzymatic activities declined significantly with increasing erosion, reflecting the degradation of soil biological health. High F-values across biological parameters underscore the sensitivity of soil microbial communities to erosional disturbances and the consequent decline in soil quality. Correlation analyses revealed extremely strong negative relationships (ranging from -0.97 to -0.99) between erosion intensity and all measured biological indices, suggesting that robust microbial activity and biomass contribute critically to soil stability and erosion resistance.
4- Discussion & Conclusions
Combined water and wind erosion exerts profound and widespread impacts on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils. Increased erosion intensity induces destructive alterations such as modifications in soil texture, reduced porosity, elevated bulk density, and decreased moisture content—ultimately leading to a significant decline in soil physical quality. Erosion also causes a marked depletion of essential soil nutrients, including organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and potassium, thereby impairing key soil chemical indicators and soil fertility levels. Biological attributes—such as enzymatic activities, microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen, and basal microbial respiration—also decline under increasing erosion pressure, underscoring the high sensitivity of soil biological functioning to erosional processes. This degradation not only compromises surface soil structure and fertility but also disrupts vital ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling, microbial activity, and long-term carbon sequestration. Moreover, a decline in microbial populations impairs soil biological processes, weakening nutrient dynamics and limiting soil regeneration capacity. These cascading effects ultimately diminish soil productivity and ecosystem resilience. Therefore, identifying erosion-prone areas and implementing targeted soil conservation and restoration strategies is critical for mitigating erosion impacts and preserving soil quality and ecosystem sustainability.
In recent years, soil erosion, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, has been considered one of the most critical environmental threats, which reduces the productive capacity of ecosystems and disrupts their natural balance by causing extensive changes in the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil systems. Soil erosion can lead to significant soil degradation in natural ecosystems. Wind and water erosion are the two main types of erosion that interact significantly with each other in arid and semi-arid areas. The amount of soil lost through combined wind and water erosion is greater than the amount lost due to each of the erosions alone. This study aimed to assess the impacts of combined wind and water erosion on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils in the Bampour region of Sistan and Baluchestan Province, southeastern Iran.
2- Methodology
Soil sampling in this study was done in a completely randomized design. First, erosion and sedimentation maps available in the region were used to classify soil erosion intensities, including: no erosion, low erosion, moderate erosion, and severe erosion. Then, in each erosion region, four homogeneous areas with common physiographic conditions were selected. In each of them, five soil samples (one sample in the center and four samples in the form of a plus sign around it) were collected. Soil sampling was carried out from a depth of 0 to 30 cm. For each erosion site, samples collected from homogeneous areas were mixed to prepare a composite sample. Immediately after collection, the soil samples were divided into two parts. Part of the samples intended for measuring biological properties were transported to the laboratory in sealed containers to maintain the initial humidity conditions and in the vicinity of dry ice. These samples were not sieved and were stored in the refrigerator until the experiments were performed. The other part of the samples was used to measure physical and chemical properties after drying in the open air and passing through a 2 mm sieve. The data were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS software. Duncan's test with a 95% confidence level was used to compare the means. Also, the correlation between the studied parameters was analyzed in the R software environment.
3- Results
The results indicated that erosion intensity significantly influences all physical, chemical, and biological soil properties. The most pronounced changes in physical properties were observed in bulk density and porosity, highlighting their high sensitivity to erosion processes. Analysis of variance confirmed that erosion intensity has a significant impact on key chemical parameters, including organic carbon, total nitrogen, available potassium and phosphorus, soil pH, electrical conductivity, and moisture content. Organic carbon concentration was highest in non-eroded soils (55.5 g/kg) and decreased significantly as erosion severity increased. Similarly, soil moisture content declined sharply from 19.9% in non-eroded soils to 7.3% under severe erosion conditions. Strong negative correlations were found between erosion intensity and organic carbon, total nitrogen, available potassium, electrical conductivity, and moisture, indicating that reductions in these soil fertility indicators are associated with increased erosion severity. Moreover, microbial biomass and enzymatic activities declined significantly with increasing erosion, reflecting the degradation of soil biological health. High F-values across biological parameters underscore the sensitivity of soil microbial communities to erosional disturbances and the consequent decline in soil quality. Correlation analyses revealed extremely strong negative relationships (ranging from -0.97 to -0.99) between erosion intensity and all measured biological indices, suggesting that robust microbial activity and biomass contribute critically to soil stability and erosion resistance.
4- Discussion & Conclusions
Combined water and wind erosion exerts profound and widespread impacts on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils. Increased erosion intensity induces destructive alterations such as modifications in soil texture, reduced porosity, elevated bulk density, and decreased moisture content—ultimately leading to a significant decline in soil physical quality. Erosion also causes a marked depletion of essential soil nutrients, including organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and potassium, thereby impairing key soil chemical indicators and soil fertility levels. Biological attributes—such as enzymatic activities, microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen, and basal microbial respiration—also decline under increasing erosion pressure, underscoring the high sensitivity of soil biological functioning to erosional processes. This degradation not only compromises surface soil structure and fertility but also disrupts vital ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling, microbial activity, and long-term carbon sequestration. Moreover, a decline in microbial populations impairs soil biological processes, weakening nutrient dynamics and limiting soil regeneration capacity. These cascading effects ultimately diminish soil productivity and ecosystem resilience. Therefore, identifying erosion-prone areas and implementing targeted soil conservation and restoration strategies is critical for mitigating erosion impacts and preserving soil quality and ecosystem sustainability.
Keywords: Combined wind–water erosion, Soil physicochemical properties, Soil microbial activity, Bampur region
Type of Study: Research |
Received: 2025/05/31
Received: 2025/05/31
References
1. Abu-Hamdeh, N. H., & Reeder, R. C. (2000). Soil thermal conductivity: Effects of density, moisture, salt concentration, and organic matter. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 64(4), 1285-1290. [DOI:10.2136/sssaj2000.6441285x]
2. Amooh, M. K., & Bonsu, M. E. N. S. A. H. (2015). Effects of soil texture and organic matter on evaporative loss of soil moisture. Journal of Global Agriculture and Ecology, 3, 152-161.
3. Anderson, J. P. E. (1982). Soil respiration. In A. L. Page (Ed.), Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 2 Chemical and Microbiological Properties (pp. 831-871). ASA and SSSA. [DOI:10.2134/agronmonogr9.2.2ed.c41]
4. Asghari, S. H., & Arkhazloo, H. S. (2020). Effects of land use and slope on soil physical, mechanical and hydraulic quality in Heyran neck, Ardabil Province. Journal of Environmental Erosion Research, 37, 79-91. (in persian)
5. Banerjee, S., Misra, A., Sar, A., Pal, S., Chaudhury, S., & Dam, B. (2020). Poor nutrient availability in opencast coalmine influences microbial community composition and diversity in exposed and underground soil profiles. Applied Soil Ecology, 152, 103544. [DOI:10.1016/j.apsoil.2020.103544]
6. Bastani, M., Sadeghipour, A., Kamali, N., Zarafshar, M., & Bazoot, S. (2023). How does livestock graze management affect woodland soil health. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 6, 1-8. [DOI:10.3389/ffgc.2023.1028149]
7. Brookes, P. C., Landman, A., Pruden, G., & Jenkinson, D. S. (1985). Chloroform fumigation and the release of soil nitrogen: A rapid direct extraction method to measure microbial biomass nitrogen in soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 17(6), 837-842. [DOI:10.1016/0038-0717(85)90144-0]
8. Caldwell, B. A. (2005). Enzyme activities as a component of soil biodiversity: A review. Pedobiologia, 49, 637-644. [DOI:10.1016/j.pedobi.2005.06.003]
9. Chen, L., Baoyin, T., & Xia, F. (2022). Grassland management strategies influence soil C, N, and P sequestration through shifting plant community composition in semi-arid grasslands of northern China. Ecological Indicators, 34, 1-12. [DOI:10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.108470]
10. Chen, Q., Dong, J., Zhu, D., Hu, H., Delgado-Baquerizo, M., Ma, Y., He, J.-Z., & Zhu, Y.-G. (2020). Rare microbial taxa as the major drivers of ecosystem multifunctionality in long-term fertilized soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 141, 107686. [DOI:10.1016/j.soilbio.2019.107686]
11. Creamean, J. M., Suski, K. J., Rosenfeld, D., Cazorla, A., DeMott, P. J., Sullivan, R. C., White, A. B., Ralph, F. M., Minnis, P., Comstock, J. M., Tomlinson, J. M., & Prather, K. A. (2013). Dust and biological aerosols from the Sahara and Asia influence precipitation in the western U.S. Science, 339(6127), 1572-1578. [DOI:10.1126/science.1227279]
12. Fathizad, H., et al. (2020). Spatio-temporal dynamic of soil quality in the central Iranian desert modeled with machine learning and digital soil assessment techniques. Ecological Indicators, 118, 106736. [DOI:10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106736]
13. Fierer, N. (2017). Embracing the unknown: Disentangling the complexities of the soil microbiome. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 15(10), 579-590. [DOI:10.1038/nrmicro.2017.87]
14. Hladký, J., Novotná, J., Elbl, J., Kynický, J., Juřička, D., Novotná, J., & Brtnický, M. (2016). Impacts of water erosion on soil physical properties. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 64, 1523-1527. [DOI:10.11118/actaun201664051523]
15. Huang, J., Li, Z., Zeng, G., Zhang, J., Li, J., Nie, X., Ma, W., & Zhang, X. (2013). Microbial responses to simulated water erosion in relation to organic carbon dynamics on a hilly cropland in subtropical China. Ecological Engineering, 60, 67-75. [DOI:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.07.040]
16. Iturri, L. A., & Buschiazzo, D. E. (2023). Interactions between wind erosion and soil organic carbon. In Agricultural Soil Sustainability and Carbon Management (pp. 163-179). Academic Press. [DOI:10.1016/B978-0-323-95911-7.00005-0]
17. Kamali, N., Sadeghipour, A., Souri, M., & Mastinu, M. (2022). Variations in soil biological and biochemical indicators under different grazing intensities and seasonal changes. Land, 11, 1537. [DOI:10.3390/land11091537]
18. Kirkels, F. M. S. A., Cammeraat, L. H. N., & Kuhn, J. (2014). The fate of soil organic carbon upon erosion, transport and deposition in agricultural landscapes: A review of different concepts. Geomorphology, 226, 94-105. [DOI:10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.07.023]
19. Lal, R. (2001). Soil degradation by erosion. Land Degradation & Development, 12(6), 519-539. [DOI:10.1002/ldr.472]
20. Lal, T. N., Hinterberger, T., Widman, G., Schröder, M., Hill, N. J., Rosenstiel, W., Elger, C. E., Schölkopf, B., & Birbaumer, N. (2005). Methods towards invasive human brain computer interfaces. In L. K. Saul, Y. Weiss, & L. Bottou (Eds.), Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (Vol. 17, pp. 737-744). MIT Press.
21. Li, P., Liu, L., Wang, J., Wang, Z., Wang, X., Bai, Y., & Chen, S. (2018). Wind erosion enhanced by land use changes significantly reduces ecosystem carbon storage and carbon sequestration potentials in semiarid grasslands. Land Degradation & Development, 29(11), 3469-3478. [DOI:10.1002/ldr.3118]
22. Li, H. Q., Zhu, H. S., Wei, X. R., Liu, B. Y., & Shao, M. A. (2021). Soil erosion leads to degradation of hydraulic properties in the agricultural region of Northeast China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 314, 107388. [DOI:10.1016/j.agee.2021.107388]
23. Li, Z., Liu, X., Zhang, M., & Xing, F. (2022). Plant diversity and fungal richness regulate the changes in soil multifunctionality in a semi-arid grassland. Biology, 11(6), 870. [DOI:10.3390/biology11060870]
24. Li, Z., Xiao, H., Tang, Z., Huang, J., Nie, X., Huang, B., Ma, W., Lu, Y., & Zeng, G. (2015). Microbial responses to erosion-induced soil physico-chemical property changes in the hilly red soil region of southern China. European Journal of Soil Biology, 71, 37-44. [DOI:10.1016/j.ejsobi.2015.10.003]
25. Long, X. E., Yao, H., Huang, Y., Wei, W., & Zhu, Y. G. (2018). Phosphate levels influence the utilisation of rice rhizodeposition carbon and the phosphate-solubilising microbial community in a paddy soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 118, 103-114. [DOI:10.1016/j.soilbio.2017.12.014]
26. Makoi, J. H., & Ndakidemi, P. A. (2008). Selected soil enzymes: Examples of their potential roles in the ecosystem. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7, 181-191.
27. Mandal, D., & Giri, N. (2021). Soil erosion and policy initiatives in India. Current Science, 120(6), 1007-1012. [DOI:10.18520/cs/v120/i6/1007-1012]
28. Mandal, D., Chandrakala, M., Alam, N. M., & Mandal, U. (2021). Assessment of soil quality and productivity in different phases of soil erosion with the focus on land degradation neutrality in tropical humid region of India. CATENA, 204, 105440. [DOI:10.1016/j.catena.2021.105440]
29. Mandal, D., & Dadhwal, K. S. (2012). Land evaluation and soil assessment for conservation planning and enhanced productivity (p. 90). Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute.
30. Mandal, D., Patra, S., Sharma, N. K., Alam, N. M., Jana, C., & Lal, R. (2023). Impacts of soil erosion on soil quality and agricultural sustainability in the North Western Himalayan Region of India. Sustainability, 15(6), 5430. [DOI:10.3390/su15065430]
31. Martens, R. (1995). Current methods for measuring microbial biomass C in soil: Potentials and limitations. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 19, 87-99. [DOI:10.1007/BF00336142]
32. Molla, A., Skoufogianni, E., Lolas, A., & Skordas, K. (2022). The impact of different cultivation practices on surface runoff, soil and nutrient losses in a rotational system of legume-cereal and sunflower. Plants, 11(23), 3513. [DOI:10.3390/plants11243513]
33. Moradi, H. R., Rezaei, V., & Erfanian, M. (2024). Investigation of physicochemical characteristics of soil in badland areas formation. Researches in Earth Sciences, 15(3), 91-105. [DOI:10.48308/esrj.2021.101282]
34. Nabiollahi, K., Golmohamadi, F., Taghizadeh-Mehrjardi, R., Kerry, R., & Davari, M. (2018). Assessing the effects of slope gradient and land use change on soil quality degradation through digital mapping of soil quality indices and soil loss rate. Geoderma, 318, 16-28. [DOI:10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.12.024]
35. Owens, P. N. (2020). Soil erosion and sediment dynamics in the Anthropocene: A review of human impacts during a period of rapid global environmental change. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 20, 4115-4143. [DOI:10.1007/s11368-020-02815-9]
36. Pimentel, D., & Burgess, M. (2013). Soil erosion threatens food production. Agriculture, 3, 443-463. [DOI:10.3390/agriculture3030443]
37. Plotnikova, O. O., Demidov, V. V., Farkhodov, Y. R., Tsymbarovich, P. R., & Semenkov, I. N. (2024). Influence of water erosion on soil aggregates and organic matter in arable Chernozems: Case study. Agronomy, 14(8), 1607. [DOI:10.3390/agronomy14081607]
38. Qiu, L., Zhang, Q., Zhu, H., Reich, P. B., Banerjee, S., van der Heijden, M. G., ... & Wei, X. (2021). Erosion reduces soil microbial diversity, network complexity and multifunctionality. The ISME Journal, 15(8), 2474-2489. [DOI:10.1038/s41396-021-00913-1]
39. Qu, Y., Tang, J., Li, Z., Zhou, Z., Wang, J., Wang, S., & Cao, Y. (2020). Soil enzyme activity and microbial metabolic function diversity in soda saline-alkali rice paddy fields of northeast China. Sustainability, 12(23), 10095. [DOI:10.3390/su122310095]
40. Řezáčová, V., Czakó, A., Stehlík, M., Mayerová, M., Šimon, T., Smatanová, M., & Madaras, M. (2021). Organic fertilization improves soil aggregation through increases in abundance of eubacteria and products of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 12548. [DOI:10.1038/s41598-021-91653-x]
41. Schuman, G. E., Janzen, H. H., & Herrick, J. E. (2002). Soil carbon dynamics and potential carbon sequestration by rangelands. Environmental Pollution, 116, 391-396. [DOI:10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00215-9]
42. Shi, W. (2011). Agricultural and ecological significance of soil enzymes: Soil carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling. In G. Shukla & A. Varma (Eds.), Soil Enzymology (pp. 43-60). Springer. [DOI:10.1007/978-3-642-14225-3_3]
43. Soltani Toularoud, A., & Asghari, S. (2021). Assessment the effect of slope aspect and position on some soil microbial indices in rangeland and forest. Environmental Erosion Research Journal, 11(1), 58-74. [DOI:10.52547/jeer.11.1.58]
44. Sun, S., Zhang, G., He, T., Song, S., & Chu, X. (2021). Effects of landscape positions and landscape types on soil properties and chlorophyll content of citrus in a sloping orchard in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China. Sustainability, 13(8), 4288. [DOI:10.3390/su13084288]
45. Tuo, D., Lu, Q., Wu, B., Li, Q., Yao, B., Cheng, L., & Zhu, J. (2023). Effects of wind-water erosion and topographic factor on soil properties in the Loess Hilly Region of China. Plants (Basel), 12(13), 2568. [DOI:10.3390/plants12132568]
46. Wang, B. R., An, S. S., Liang, C., Liu, Y., & Kuzyakov, Y. (2021). Microbial necromass as the source of soil organic carbon in global ecosystems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 162, 108422. [DOI:10.1016/j.soilbio.2021.108422]
47. Wu, X. L., Wei, Y. J., Cai, C. F., Yuan, Z. J., Liao, Y. S., & Li, D. Q. (2020). Effects of erosion-induced land degradation on effective sediment size characteristics in sheet erosion. Catena, 195, 104843. [DOI:10.1016/j.catena.2020.104843]
48. Yang, Q., Peng, J., Ni, S., Zhang, C., Wang, J., & Cai, C. (2024). Soil erosion-induced decline in aggregate stability and soil organic carbon reduces aggregate-associated microbial diversity and multifunctionality of agricultural slope in the Mollisol region. Land Degradation & Development, 35(11), 3714-3726. [DOI:10.1002/ldr.5163]
49. Zhang, X., Pei, G., & Zhang, T. (2023). Erosion effects on soil microbial carbon use efficiency in the Mollisol cropland in northeast China. Soil Ecology Letters, 5(4). [DOI:10.1007/s42832-023-0176-4]
50. Zhao, C., Li, Y., Zhou, Z., Wu, R., Su, M., & Song, H. (2025). Simulated wind erosion and local dust deposition affect soil micro-food web by changing resource availability. Ecological Processes, 14(1), 7. [DOI:10.1186/s13717-024-00574-w]
Send email to the article author
| Rights and permissions | |
 |
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
